From en.wikipedia.org:
[Major deity in Indian religions symbolizing power, time, and death] [the form
of Mahadevi] [pp-move-indef] [small=yes] [date=March 2015] {{Infobox
deity<!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology--> | type = Hindu | name = Kali
| deity_of = Goddess of Time, Death and Destruction | abode = Cremation
grounds, Battlefields (varies by interpretation), Manidvipa | consort =
Shiva[1] | mantra = *_oṁ jayanti maṅgala kālī<br>bhadrakālī kapālinī<br>durgā
kṣamā śivā dhātrī<br>svāhā svadhā namostute_
- _oṁ krīṃ kālīkāyai namaḥ_
| weapon = Scimitar, Trishula (Trident) | image = Kali by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg
| festivals = [Kali Puja] | caption = _Kali_ by Raja Ravi Varma | affiliation
= [Shakti] | gender = Female | member_of = The Ten Mahavidyas | day = Tuesday
and Friday | texts = Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Devi Mahatmya, Kalika Purana,
Shakta Upanishads, Tantras | mount = Lion }} [Hinduism] [Saktism]
KALI ([ˈ]; [sa], [Kālī]), also called KALIKA or MAHAKALI, is a major goddess
in Hinduism, primarily associated with time, death and destruction. Kali is
also connected with transcendental knowledge and is the first of the ten
Mahavidyas, a group of goddesses who provide liberating knowledge.<ref
name="Paul"/>[2] Of the numerous Hindu goddesses, Kali is held as the most
famous.<ref name="Lynn"/> She is the preeminent deity in the Hindu tantric and
the Kalikula worship traditions, and is a central figure in the
goddess-centric sects of Hinduism as well as in Shaivism.<ref name="EY"/>[3]
Kali is chiefly worshipped as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, and
Divine feminine energy.[4][5][6]
The origins of Kali can be traced to the pre-Vedic and Vedic era goddess
worship traditions in the Indian subcontinent.[7] Etymologically, the term
_Kali_ refers to one who governs time or is black. The first major appearance
of Kali in the Sanskrit literature was in the sixth-century CE text _Devi
Mahatmya_.<ref name="EY"/> Kali appears in many stories, with the most popular
one being when she manifests as personification of goddess Durga's rage to
defeat the demon Raktabija. The terrifying iconography of Kali makes her a
unique figure among the goddesses and symbolises her embracement and
embodiment of the grim worldly realities of blood, death and destruction.<ref
name="Paul"/>
Kali is stated to protect and bestow liberation (_moksha_) to devotees who
approach her with an attitude of a child towards mother. Devotional songs and
poems that extol the motherly nature of Kali are popular in Bengal, where she
is most widely worshipped as the Divine Mother. Shakta and Tantric traditions
additionally worship Kali as the ultimate reality or _Brahman_.<ref
name="McDaniel" /> In modern times, Kali has emerged as a symbol of
significance for women.<ref name="Paul"/>
** Etymology
The term _Kali_ is derived from _Kala_, which is mentioned quite differently
in Sanskrit.[8] The homonym _[kālá]_ (time) is distinct from _kāla_ (black),
but these became associated through popular etymology.<ref
name="Coburn111-112"/> Kali is then understood as "she who is the ruler of
time", or "she who is black".<ref name="Jones"/> Kālī is the goddess of time
or death and the consort of Shiva.[9] She is called Kali Mata ("the dark
mother") and also _kālī_, which can be read here either as a proper name or as
a description: "the dark (or black) one".[10]
** History
Although the word _[Kālī]_ appears as early as the Atharva Veda, the first use
of it as a proper name is in the _Kathaka Grhya Sutra_ (19.7).[11] Kali
originated as a tantric and non-Vedic goddess. Her roots are most probably
connected to the Pre-Aryan period.[12] According to Indologist Wendy Doniger,
Kali's origins can be traced to the deities of the Pre-Vedic village, tribal,
and mountain cultures of South Asia who were gradually appropriated and
transformed by the Sanskritic traditions.<ref name="EY" />
** Legends
Her most well-known appearance is on the battlefield in the sixth century text
_Devi Mahatmyam_. The deity of the first chapter of _Devi Mahatmyam_ is
Mahakali, who appears from the body of sleeping Vishnu as goddess Yoga Nidra
to wake him up in order to protect Brahma and the world from two asuras
(demons), Madhu-Kaitabha. When Vishnu woke up he started a war against the
two asuras. After a long battle with Vishnu, the two demons were undefeated
and Mahakali took the form of Mahamaya to enchant the two asuras. When Madhu
and Kaitabha were enchanted by Mahakali, Vishnu killed them.[13]
In later chapters, the story of two asuras who were destroyed by Kali can be
found. Chanda and Munda attack the goddess Kaushiki. Kaushiki responds with
such anger that it causes her face to turn dark, resulting in Kali appearing
out of her forehead. Kali's appearance is dark blue, gaunt with sunken eyes,
wearing a tiger skin sari and a garland of human heads. She immediately
defeats the two asuras. Later in the same battle, the asura Raktabija is
undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his
blood that reaches the ground. Countless Raktabija clones appear on the
battlefield. Kali eventually defeats him by sucking his blood before it can
reach the ground, and eating the numerous clones. Kinsley writes that Kali
represents "Durga's personified wrath, her embodied fury".<ref
name="Kinsley1997" />
Other origin stories involve Parvati and Shiva. Parvati is typically
portrayed as a benign and friendly goddess. The _Linga Purana_ describes
Shiva asking Parvati to defeat the asura Daruka, who received a boon that
would only allow a female to kill him. Parvati merges with Shiva's body,
reappearing as Kali to defeat Daruka and his armies. Her bloodlust gets out
of control, only calming when Shiva intervenes. The _Vamana Purana_ has a
different version of Kali's relationship with Parvati. When Shiva addresses
Parvati as Kali, "the dark blue one", she is greatly offended. Parvati
performs austerities to lose her dark complexion and becomes Gauri, the golden
one. Her dark sheath becomes _Kaushiki_, who while enraged, creates Kali.<ref
name="Kinsley1997" />
In the Devi Bhagavata Purana, Kali turns black out of rage, while battling the
demons Shumbha and Nishumbha.<ref name="Jones"/>[221]
*** Slayer of Raktabīja
In Kāli's most famous legend, Durga and her assistants, the Matrikas, wound
the demon Raktabīja, in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an
attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation
for with every drop of blood that drips from Raktabīja, he reproduces a
duplicate of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his
duplicates.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> Durga summons Kāli to combat the demons.
This episode is described in the _Devi Mahatmya m,_ Kali is depicted as being
fierce, clad in a tiger's skin and armed with a sword and noose. She has
deep, red eyes with tongue lolling out as she catches drops of Raktabīja's
blood before they fall to the ground and create duplicates.<ref
name="Wangu2003" />
Kali consumes Raktabīja and his duplicates, and dances on the corpses of the
slain.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> In the _Devi Mahatmya_ version of this story,
Kali is also described as a _Matrika_ and as a _Shakti_ or power of Devi. She
is given the epithet _[Cāṃuṇḍā]_ (_Chamunda_), that is, the slayer of the
demons Chanda and Munda.<ref name ="Wangu2003">{{cite book |last1=Wangu
|first1=Madhu Bazaz |title=Images of Indian Goddesses |year=2003
|publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-416-5}}[72] _Chamunda_ is
very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and
habit.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />[241 Footnotes]
** Iconography and forms
The goddess Kali is regarded as the most famous female deity of all the
numerous Hindu goddesses.[14] The uncommon appearance of Kali is explained as
a cause of her popularity.<ref name="Paul"/>[398] Kali is iconographically
depicted as a "terrifying emaciated woman"; with black skin, long tangled
hair, red eyes and a long lolling tongue. She is naked barring a grim set of
ornamentation: "a necklace of skulls or freshly decapitated[sic]<!-- bodies
are decapitated, heads are severed--> heads, a skirt of severed arms and
jewellery made from the corpses of infants." The "wildness" is a defining
aspect of her character.<ref name="Paul"/>[399] The terrifying iconography of
Kali is considered symbolic of her role as a protector and a bestower of
freedom to devotees, of whom she shall take care if they come to her in the
"attitude of a child."<ref name="Paul"/>[399] Devotional songs and poems that
glorify the motherly nature of Kali are popular in Bengal, where she is most
extensively worshipped.<ref name="Paul"/>[399]
In the Devi Mahatmya, where Kali first appeared as a personification of the
rage of goddess Durga, an aspect of Kali's character was her thirst for blood
and fondness to stay at places of death and destruction.<ref
name="Paul"/>[399] In original depictions, Kali was often pictured in a
cremation ground or battlefield standing on the corpse of Shiva, which
symbolized her manifestation as Shakti.<ref name=":3" /> Kali represents the
goddess embracing and encompassing the grim worldly realities of "blood, death
and destruction".[15]
The _Kalika Purana_ describes Kali as "possessing a soothing dark complexion,
as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue
lotus, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful".[16] The goddess has two
depictions: the popular four-armed form and the ten-armed Mahakali avatar. In
both, she is described as being black in colour, though she is often seen as
blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication
and rage. Her hair is disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her
mouth, and her tongue is lolling. Sometimes she dons a skirt made of demon
arms and a garland of demon heads. Other times, she is seen wearing a tiger
skin. She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on the
calm and prostrate Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more
popular _dakṣiṇācāra_ ("right-hand path"), as opposed to the more infamous and
transgressive vamachara ("left-hand path").[17] Her mount, or _vahana_, is the
lion.[18]
*** Popular form
Kali is depicted with four arms, which symbolize the circle of creation and
dissolution.<ref name=":3" /> Her left hands are depicted holding a severed
head and a sword.[19] The sword signifies divine knowledge and the human head
signifies human ego which must be slain by divine knowledge in order to attain
moksha. The right hands are usually depicted in the abhaya (fearlessness) and
varada (blessing) mudras, which means her initiated devotees (or anyone
worshipping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here
and in the hereafter.<ref name="White2000" />[477]
She wears a garland of demon heads, variously enumerated at 108 (an auspicious
number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on a japa mala or rosary
for repetition of mantras) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of
letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, Devanagari. Hindus believe Sanskrit is a
language of dynamism, and each of these letters represents a form of energy,
or a form of Kali. Therefore, she is generally seen as the mother of
language, and all mantras.<ref name="White2000" />[475]
She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond the covering of
Maya since she is pure (_nirguna_) being-consciousness-bliss and far above
Prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is Brahman in its supreme
unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities—she will continue to exist
even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of
color, light, good, and bad do not apply to her.<ref name="White2000"
/>[463–488]
*** Mahakali
[Mahakali]
Mahakali (Sanskrit: Mahākālī, Devanagari: महाकाली, Bengali: মহাকালী, Gujarati:
મહાકાળી), literally translated as "Great Kali", is sometimes considered as a
greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of Brahman. It can
also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali,.<ref name="McDaniel"/>[257]
Mahakali symbolizes absolute night and the power of time. She is depicted
with five or ten heads, each with three eyes and holding different weapons.
Mahakali is known as the origin of all things, her consort is Mahakala.<ref
name="McDaniel" />[257]
The Skanda Purana mentions that Kali took the form of Mahakali at the
instruction of Shiva who wanted her to destroy the world during the time of
universal destruction.<ref name="McDaniel" />[242]
In the ten-armed form of Mahakali, she is depicted as shining like a blue
stone. She has ten faces, ten feet, and three eyes for each head. She has
ornaments decked on all her limbs. There is no association with Shiva.[20]
*** Dakshinakali
Dakshinakali is the most popular form of Kali in Bengal.[21] She is the
benevolent mother, who protects her devotees and children from mishaps and
misfortunes. There are various versions for the origin of the name
_Dakshinakali_. _Dakshina_ refers to the gift given to a priest before
performing a ritual or to one's guru. Such gifts are traditionally given with
the right hand. Dakshinakali's two right hands are usually depicted in
gestures of blessing and giving of boons. One version of the origin of her
name comes from the story of Yama, lord of death, who lives in the south
(_dakshina_). When Yama heard Kali's name, he fled in terror, and so those
who worship Kali are said to be able to overcome death itself.[22]<ref
name="Dold2003" />[53–55]
Dakshinakali is typically shown with her right foot on Shiva's chest—while
depictions showing Kali with her left foot on Shiva's chest depict the even
more fearsome Vamakali. Vamakali is usually worshipped by
non-householders.[23]
The pose shows the conclusion of an episode in which Kali was rampaging out of
control after destroying many demons. Vishnu confronted Kali in an attempt to
cool her down. She was unable to see beyond the limitless power of her rage
and Vishnu had to move out of her way. Seeing this the devas became more
fearful, afraid that in her rampage, Kali would not stop until she destroyed
the entire universe. Shiva saw only one solution to prevent Kali's endless
destruction. Shiva lay down on the battlefield so that Goddess Mahakali would
have to step on him. When she saw her consort under her foot, Kali realized
that she had gone too far. Filled with grief for the damage she had done, her
blood-red tongue hung from her mouth, calming her down. In some
interpretations of the story, Shiva was attempting to receive Kali's grace by
receiving her foot on his chest.[24]
[[File:Daksina Kali clay statue of Bengal.jpg|thumb|upright|The goddess is
generally worshipped as Dakshina Kali (with her right feet on Shiva) in Bengal
during Kali Puja.[25]]]
According to Rachel Fell McDermott, the poets portrayed Shiva as "the devotee
who falls at [Kali's] feet in devotion, in the surrender of his ego, or in
hopes of gaining _moksha_ by her touch." In fact, Shiva is said to have become
so enchanted by Kali that he performed austerities to win her, and having
received the treasure of her feet, held them against his heart in
reverence.[26]
The popularity of the worship of the Dakshinakali form of Goddess Kali is
often attributed to Krishnananda Agamavagisha. He was a noted 17th-century
Bengali Tantra thinker and author of _Tantrasara_. Devi Kali reportedly
appeared to him in a dream and told him to popularize her in a particular form
that would appear to him the following day. The next morning he observed a
young woman making cow dung patties. While placing a patty on a wall, she
stood in the _alidha_ pose, with her right foot forward. When she saw
Krishnananda watching her, she was embarrassed and put her tongue between her
teeth, Agamavagisha realized that this was the divine form of maa kali he was
looking for.<ref name="Dold2003" />[54][27] Krishnananda Agamavagisha was also
the guru of the Kali devotee and poet Ramprasad Sen.<ref name="Harding"
/>[217]
*** Samhara Kali
Samhara Kali, also called Vama Kali, is the embodiment of the power of
destruction. The chief goddess of Tantric texts, Samhara Kali is the most
dangerous and powerful form of Kali. Samhara Kali takes form when Kali steps
out with her left foot holding her sword in her right hand. She is the Kali
of death, destruction and is worshipped by tantrics. As Samhara Kali she
gives death and liberation. According to the Mahakala Samhita, Samhara Kali
is two armed and black in complexion. She stands on a corpse and holds a
freshly cut head and a plate to collect the dripping blood. She is worshipped
by warriors, tantrics – the followers of Tantra.<ref name="Harding" />
*** Other forms
Other forms of Kali popularly worshipped in Bengal include Raksha Kali (form
of Kali worshipped for protection against epidemics and drought), Bhadra Kali
and Guhya Kali. Kali is said to have 8, 12, or 21 different forms according
to different traditions. The popular forms are Adya Kali, Chintamani Kali,
Sparshamani Kali, Santati Kali, Siddhi Kali, Dakshina Kali, Rakta Kali, Bhadra
Kali, Smashana Kali, Adharvana Bhadra Kali, Kamakala Kali, Guhya Kali, Hamsa
Kali, Shyama Kali, and Kalasankarshini Kali. In Gujarat, Khodiyar is a
regional form of Mahakali.<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/>
** Symbolism
Interpretations of the symbolic meanings of Kali's appearance vary depending
on Tantric or devotional approach, and on whether one views her image in a
symbolic, allegorical or mystical fashion.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" />
There are many varied depictions of the different forms of Kali. The most
common form shows her with four arms and hands, showing aspects of both
creation and destruction. The two right hands are often held out in blessing,
one in a mudra saying "fear not" (abhayamudra), the other conferring boons.
Her left hands hold a severed head and blood-covered sword. The sword severs
the bondage of ignorance and ego (tamas), represented by the severed head.
One interpretation of Kali's tongue is that the red tongue symbolizes the
rajasic nature being conquered by the white (symbolizing sattvic) nature of
the teeth. Her blackness represents that she is _nirguna_, beyond all
qualities of nature, and transcendent.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" /><ref
name="Dold2003" />[53–55] Kali's lolling tongue is interpreted as her being
angry, enraged; while many in India interpret it as "biting the tongue" in
shame.<ref name="Jones"/>[222]
The most widespread interpretation of Kali's extended tongue involve her
embarrassment over the sudden realization that she has stepped on her
husband's chest. Kali's sudden "modesty and shame" over that act is the
prevalent interpretation among Odia Hindus.<ref name="Dold2003" />[53–55] The
biting of the tongue conveys the emotion of _lajja_ or modesty, an expression
that is widely accepted as the emotion being expressed by Kali.[28]<ref
name="McDaniel"/>[237] In Bengal also, Kali's protruding tongue is "widely
accepted... as a sign of speechless embarrassment: a gesture very common
among Bengalis."[29]<ref name="Harding" />[xxiii]
The twin earrings of Kali are small embryos. This is because Kali likes
devotees who have childlike qualities in them.<ref name="Pravrajika
Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/> The forehead of Kali is seen to be as luminous as
the full moon and eternally giving out ambrosia.<ref name="Pravrajika
Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/>
Kali is often shown standing with her right foot on Shiva's chest. This
represents an episode where Kali was out of control on the battlefield, such
that she was about to destroy the entire universe. Shiva pacified her by
laying down under her foot to pacify and calm her. Shiva is sometimes shown
with a blissful smile on his face.<ref name="Dold2003" />[53–55] She is
typically shown with a garland of severed heads, often numbering fifty. This
can symbolize the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet and therefore as the
primordial sound of Aum from which all creation proceeds. The severed arms
which make up her skirt represent her devotee's karma that she has taken
on.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" />
There are several interpretations of the symbolism behind the commonly
represented image of Kali standing on Shiva's supine form. A common
interpretation is that Shiva symbolizes _purusha_, the universal unchanging
aspect of reality, or pure consciousness. Kali represents _Prakriti_, nature
or matter, sometimes seen as having a feminine quality of creation of life.
The merging of these two qualities represent ultimate reality.<ref
name="Kinsley1997" />[88]
A tantric interpretation sees Shiva as consciousness and Kali as power or
energy. Consciousness and energy are dependent upon each other, since Shiva
depends on Shakti, or energy, in order to fulfill his role in creation,
preservation, and destruction. In this view, without Shakti, Shiva is a
corpse—unable to act.<ref name="Dold2003"/>[53]
** Worship
*** Mantras
Kali is closely associated with transcendent knowledge and is regarded as the
first of the ten Mahavidyas, an amalgamation of goddesses who provide
liberating knowledge.<ref name="Paul"/>[399] Kali is primarily worshipped in
the Kalikula worship tradition. The closest way of direct worship is to the
forms of Mahakali or Bhadrakali (Bhadra in Sanskrit means 'gentle'). One
mantra for Kali worship is:[30]
{{verse translation|lang=sa|italicsoff=y |सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्ये शिवे
सर्वार्थसाधिके । शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥ ॐ जयंती मंगला
काली भद्रकाली कपालिनी । दुर्गा क्षमा शिवा धात्री स्वाहा स्वधा नमोऽस्तुते ॥
|Sarvamangal-māngalyē śivē sarvārthasādhikē. Śaraṇyē tryambakē Gauri nārāyaṇi
namō'stu tē. Oṃ jayantī mangala kālī bhadrakālī kapālinī . Durgā kṣamā śivā
dhātrī svāhā svadhā namō'stutē. ॐ काली काली महाकाली कालिके परमेश्वरी ।
सर्वानन्दकरी देवी नारायणि नमोऽस्तुते ।। }}
*** Tantra
In Tantrism the cause of reality is the mutual interaction between male and
female or Shiva and Shakti. As a result, goddesses play an important role in
the study and practice of Tantra Yoga and are essential in understanding the
nature of reality.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> Kali is often mentioned in
Tantric iconography, texts and rituals even though Parvati received Shiva's
wisdom in the form of Tantras.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> Kali is revered as
the highest reality or greatest of all deities in many Tantric texts. The
_Niruttara-tantra_ and the _Picchila-tantra_ state that among all mantras
Kali's mantras are the greatest. The _Kdmadd-tantra_ mentions that Kali is
_sacciddnanda_ or imperishable bliss and Brahman. In other texts like
the_Yogini-tantra_, _Kamakhya-tantra_ and the _Niruttara-tantra_ Kali is
referred to as an essential form of Mahadevi.<ref name="Kinsley1997"
/>[122–124]
In Tantric practice, Kali's figure represents death itself. The
_Karpuradi-stotra,_ dated to approximately 10th century CE_,_ describes the
_Pancatattva_ ritual which is performed on cremation grounds
(_Samahana-sadhan_). It states that a _sadhaka_ that meditates on the
terrible aspects of Kali's form and confronts her can attain salvation.<ref
name="Kinsley1997" />[122–124]
The _Karpuradi-stotra_ also describes Kali's gentler form that is young, with
a smiling face and with two right hands to dispel fear and offer boons. She
is also described as the supreme being of the universe. In this benign form,
Kali becomes the goddess who grants salvation when fear is overcome and goes
from being a symbol of death to being a symbol of triumph over death.<ref
name="Kinsley1997" />[124–125]
*** In Bengali tradition
Kali is a central figure in late medieval Bengal devotional literature, with
such notable devotee poets as Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (1769–1821) and
Ramprasad Sen (1718–1775). With the exception of being associated with
Parvati as Shiva's consort, Kāli is rarely pictured in Hindu legends and
iconography as a motherly figure until Bengali devotions beginning in the
early eighteenth century. Even in Bengāli tradition her appearance and habits
change little, if at all.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />[126]
The Tantric approach to Kāli is to display courage by confronting her on
cremation grounds in the dead of night, despite her terrible appearance. In
contrast, the Bengali devotee adopts the attitude of a child, coming to love
her unreservedly. In both cases, the goal of the devotee is to become
reconciled with death and to learn acceptance of the way that things are.
These themes are addressed in Rāmprasād's work.<ref name="Kinsley1997"
/>[125–126] Rāmprasād comments in many of his other songs that Kāli is
indifferent to his wellbeing, causes him to suffer, brings his worldly desires
to nothing and his worldly goods to ruin. He also states that she does not
behave like a mother should and that she ignores his pleas.<ref
name="Kinsley1997" />[128]
To be a child of Kāli, Rāmprasād asserts, is to be denied of earthly delights
and pleasures. Kāli is said to refrain from giving that which is expected.
To the devotee, it is perhaps her very refusal to do so that enables her
devotees to reflect on dimensions of themselves and of reality that go beyond
the material world.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />[128]
A significant portion of Bengali devotional music features Kāli as its central
theme and is known as Shyama Sangeet.[31]
Kāli is especially venerated in the festival of Kali Puja in eastern India –
celebrated when the new moon day of Ashwin month coincides with the festival
of Diwali. The practice of animal sacrifice is still practiced during Kali
Puja in Bengal, Orissa, and Assam, though it is rare outside of those areas.
The Hindu temples where this takes place involves the ritual slaying of goats,
chickens and sometimes male water buffalos. Throughout India, the practice is
becoming less common.[32] The rituals in eastern India temples where animals
are killed are generally led by Brahmin priests.<ref name="Fuller Christopher
John 2004 83"/>[84, 101–104] A number of Tantric Puranas specify the ritual
for how the animal should be killed. A Brahmin priest will recite a mantra in
the ear of the animal to be sacrificed, in order to free the animal from the
cycle of life and death. Groups such as People for Animals continue to
protest animal sacrifice based on court rulings forbidding the practice in
some locations.[33]
*** In Tantric Buddhism
Tantric Kali cults such as the Kaula and Krama had a strong influence on
Tantric Buddhism, as can be seen in fierce-looking yoginis and dakinis such as
Vajrayogini and Krodikali.[34]
In Tibet, Krodikali (alt. Krodhakali, Kālikā, Krodheśvarī, Krishna Krodhini)
is known as _Tröma Nagmo_ ([xct], Wylie: [bo-Latn], English: "The Black
Wrathful Lady").[35][36] She features as a key deity in the practice tradition
of Chöd founded by Machig Labdron and is seen as a fierce form of
Vajrayogini.[37] Other similar fierce deities include the dark blue Ugra Tara
and the lion-faced Simhamukha.[38]
*** In Sinhala Buddhism
In Sri Lanka, Kali is venerated and called upon by Buddhists and Hindus. She
is a type of mother goddess, sometimes invoked to fight disease,[39] and a
maid of the Goddess Pattini.<ref name=":0" /> In Sinhala Buddhism, her origin
is explained through her arriving at Munneśvaram from South India, eating
humans, and attempting to eat Pattini, who instead tames her.<ref name=":2" />
She is regarded as having seven forms; Bhadrakāli (who is associated with
business and gold trade, and prominently worshipped at the Tamil Hindu
Munneśvaram temple, though over 80% of its patrons are Sinhala Buddhists.
Bhadrakāli priests here interpret her tongue as symbolizing revenge, rather
than embarrassment, and she tramples the demon of ignorance[40]),
Mahābhadrakāli, Pēnakāli, Vandurukāli (Hanumāpatrakāli), Rīrikāli, Sohonkāli,
and Ginikāli.<ref name=":0" /> These forms are subordinate to Kāliammā (the
mother of Kāli). Red flowers, silver coins, blood, and oil lamps with mustard
oil are offered to her, and as Pattini's servant, she accepts offerings on her
behalf.[41] Sohonkāli is the form venerated in one of her most popular
temples, the Mōdara Kāli temple in Colombo.[42]
Her worship in Sri Lanka dates back to at least the 9th century CE, and
Dharmasena Thera created the Sadharma Ratnavaliya in the 13th century based on
an older 5th century work, which actively recontextualizes Kali in a Buddhist
context,[43] exploring the nature of violence and vengeance and how they trap
people in cycles until justification, guilt, and good and evil become
irrelevant.[44] Kali has been seen as both a demon (though a tamed one, thanks
to Pattini<ref name=":2" />) and a goddess in Sri Lanka.<ref name=":1" /> She
and mythical Sinhala Buddhist kings both use demonic fury as a necessary
condition of conquest.<ref name=":2" />
Yantras are used in relation to her, sourced from the Pali Canon, later
Buddhist paritta chants, and from non-Buddhist yantras and mantras. The
Sādhakayantra is popular, and its corresponding mantra includes Arabic words
and Islamic concepts.<ref name=":1" />
*** Worship in the Western world
**** Theorized early worship
A form of Kali worship may have already been transmitted to the west in
medieval times by the wandering Romani. A few authors have drawn parallels
between Kali worship and the ceremonies of the annual pilgrimage in honor of
Saint Sarah, also known as _Sara-la-Kali_ ("Sara the Black", [rom]), held at
Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, a place of pilgrimage for Roma in the Camargue, in
southern France.[45][46] Ronald Lee (2001) notes that the similarities in the
ceremonies performed at the shrine if Sainte Sara (called Sara e Kali in
Romani) indicate that Kali/Durga worship have been incorporated to a Christian
figure.<ref name="McDermott1998p281-305" />
**** In modern times
An academic study of modern-day western Kali enthusiasts noted that, "as shown
in the histories of all cross-cultural religious transplants, Kali
devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to
adapt to its new environment."[47] Rachel Fell McDermott, Professor of Asian
and Middle Eastern Cultures at Columbia University and author of several books
on Kali, has noted the evolving views in the West regarding Kali and her
worship. In 1998 McDermott wrote that feminists and New Age spiritualists are
drawn to Kali because they perceive her to be a symbol of repressed female
power, sexuality, and healing but that this is a misinterpretation which stems
from a lack of knowledge about Hindu religious tradition.<ref
name="McDermott1998p281-305" /> By 2003, she amended this view stating that
cross-cultural borrowing should be done thoughtfully and is natural due to
religious globalization. She further stated that Kali enthusiasts since the
early 1990s had sought to take on a more informed approach by incorporating
more Indian perspective of her character than feminist and New Age
interpretations.<ref name="McDermott1998p281-305" />
The emergence of Kali in the modern times as an image of significance for many
women, both Hindu and non-Hindu, has been noteworthy.<ref name="Paul"/>[399]
Since the late twentieth century, various feminist movements in the West have
associated Kali with women's empowerment.<ref name="EY" /> New age religious
and spiritual movements have found in the iconographic representations and
mythological stories of Kali an inspiration for theological and sexual
liberation.<ref name="EY" />
**** In Réunion
In Réunion, an island territory of France in the Indian Ocean, veneration for
Saint Expeditus ([fr]) is very popular. The Malbars have Tamil ancestry but
are, at least nominally, Catholics. The saint is identified with Kali.[48]
** Comparative scholarship
Scholar Marvin H. Pope in 1965 argues that the Hindu goddess Kali, who is
first attested in the 7th century CE, shares some characteristics with some
ancient Near Eastern goddesses, such as wearing a necklace of heads and a belt
of severed hands like Anat, and drinking blood like the Egyptian goddess
Sekhmet and that therefore that her character might have been influenced by
them.[Pope]
*** Levantine Anat
The Bronze Age epic cycles of the Levantine city of Ugarit include a myth
according to which the warrior goddess Anat started attacking warriors, with
the text of the myth describing the goddess as gloating and her heart filling
with joy and her liver with laughter while attaching the heads of warriors to
her back and girding hands to her waist[Pope] until she is pacified by a
message of peace sent by her brother and consort, the god Baʿlu.[Pope]
The Hindu goddess Kali similarly wore a necklace of severed heads and a girdle
of severed hands, and was pacified by her consort, Śiva, throwing himself
under her feet. The sickle sword wielded by Kali might also have been
connected to similar sickle swords used in early dynastic Mesopotamia.[Pope]
*** Egyptian Sekhmet
According to an Ancient Egyptian myth, called [en], the ancient Egyptian
supreme god, the Sun-god Ra, suspected that mankind was plotting against him,
and so he sent the goddess Hathor, who was the incarnation of his violent
feminine aspect, the Eye of Ra, to destroy his enemies.[Pope]
Furthermore, Hathor appeared as the lion-goddess Sekhmet and carried out Ra's
orders until she became so captured by her blood-lust that she would not stop
despite Ra himself becoming distressed and wishing an end to the killing.
Therefore, Ra concocted a ruse whereby a plain was flooded with beer which had
been dyed red, which Sekhmet mistook for blood and drank until she became too
inebriated to continue killing, thus saving humanity from destruction.[Pope]
Similarly, while killing demons, Kālī became ecstatic with the joy of battle
and slaughter and refused to stop, so that the Devas feared she would destroy
the world, and she was stopped through ruse when her consort Śiva threw
himself under her feet.[Pope]
** In popular culture
A 1939 American adventure film_, Gunga Din_, features a resurgent sect of
Thuggees as worshippers of Kali who are at war with the British Raj.[49] In
the Beatles' 1965 film _Help!_, Ringo Starr is pursued by Kali worshippers
intending to sacrifice him.[50][51] In _Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom_
(1984), an action-adventure film which takes place in 1935, a Thuggee cult of
Kali worshippers are villains.[52] An Indian television series, _Mahakali —
Anth Hi Aarambh Hai_ (2017), has Parvati (Mahakali), Shiva's consort, assuming
varied forms to destroy evil and protect the innocent.[53]
A modern version of Kali was featured on the cover of the first issue of
feminist magazine _Ms._, published in 1972, with Kali's many arms symbolizing
the many tasks of the contemporary American woman.[54][55] The tongue and lips
logo of the band The Rolling Stones, created in 1971, was inspired by the
stuck-out tongue of Kali.[56][57]
** Shyama Sangeet
Generally, all music dedicated to goddess Kali is called SHYAMA SANGEET in
Bangla. Two famous singers of this Bangla Shyama Sangeet are Pannalal
Bhattacharya and Dhananjay Bhattacharya. His elder brother (dada) Prafulla
Bhattacharya and middle brother (mejda) Dhananjay Bhattacharya were the first
music teachers of saint artist Pannalal Bhattacharya. Dhananjay stopped
singing devotional songs after finding devotional spirit in his brother,
Pannalal. After the death of Pannalal Bhattacharya, he contributed again in
Bangla music with many devotional songs by his sweet, melodious voice.
** Further reading
[30em]
- [last1=Bowker ]
- [last1=Bunce ]
- [last1=Craven ]
- [last1=Doniger ]
- [last1=Harshananda ]
- [last1=Mishra ]
- [last1=Santideva ]
- Loriliai Biernacki, _Renowned Goddess of Desire: Women, Sex, and Speech in Tantra_ Oxford Scholarship Online: September 2007, [ 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327823.001.0001] , [978-0195327823]
- [editor-last=Haussig ]
- [last=Pope ]
- Shanmukha Anantha Natha and Shri Ma Kristina Baird, _Divine Initiation_ Shri Kali Publications (2001) [0-9582324-0-7] – Has a chapter on Mahadevi with a commentary on the _Devi Mahatmyam_ from the Markandeya Purana.
- Ajit Mookerjee, _Kali: The Feminine Force_ [0-89281-212-5]
- Swami Satyananda Saraswati , _Kali Puja (see https://books.google.com/books?id=in__-R6lm6sC) _ [1-887472-64-9]
- Ramprasad Sen , _Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess_ [0-934252-94-7]
- Sir John Woodroffe (a.k.a. Arthur Avalon) _Hymns to the Goddess and Hymn to Kali_ [81-85988-16-1]
- Robert E. Svoboda, _Aghora, at the left hand of God_ [0-914732-21-8]
- Dimitri Kitsikis , _L'Orocc, dans l'âge de Kali_ [2-89040-359-9]
- Lex Hixon , _Mother of the Universe: Visions of the Goddess and Tantric Hymns of Enlightenment (see https://books.google.com/books?id=HzNAYrZgtekC) _ [0-8356-0702-X]
- Neela Bhattacharya Saxena, _In the Beginning is Desire: Tracing Kali's Footprints in Indian Literature_ [81-87981-61-X]
- _The Goddess Kali of Kolkata_ ( [81-7476-514-X] ) by Shoma A. Chatterji
- _Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend_ ( [0-500-51088-1] ) by Anna Dallapiccola
- _In Praise of The Goddess: The Devimahatmyam and Its Meaning_ ( [0-89254-080-X] ) by Devadatta Kali
- _Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess (see https://books.google.com/books?id=-c_j8Xggl0gC) _ ( [0-791-45008-2] ) Edited by Tracy Pintchman
- _The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition (see https://archive.org/details/riseofgoddessinh0000pint) _ ( [0-7914-2112-0] ) by Tracy Pintchman
- Narasimhananda, Swami, Prabuddha Bharata, January 2016, The Phalaharini Kali. (see https://www.academia.edu/19972617/Phalaharini_Kali_Prabuddha_Bharata_January_2016)
[Refend]
** References
[30em]
** External links
- Kali (see https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kali) at the _Encyclopædia Britannica_
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Category:Death goddesses Category:Destroyer goddesses Category:Creator
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