From en.wikipedia.org:
[Official who presides over court proceedings] [Other uses] {{Infobox
Occupation | name= Judge | image= ICJ-CJI_hearing_1.jpg | caption= Judges at
the International Court of Justice | official_names= Judge, justice,
magistrate <!------------Details-------------------> | type= Profession |
activity_sector= Law, Justice | formation= University degree in law and
experience as a lawyer | employment_field= Courts | related_occupation=
Barrister, prosecutor | average_salary= }} A JUDGE is a person who presides
over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a judicial panel. In an
adversarial system, the judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence
presented by the barristers or solicitors of the case, assesses the
credibility and arguments of the parties, and then issues a ruling in the case
based on their interpretation of the law and their own personal judgment. A
judge is expected to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open
court.
The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of
judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, the
judge's powers may be shared with a jury. In inquisitorial systems of
criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate. The
presiding judge ensures that all court proceedings are lawful and orderly.
** Powers and functions
The ultimate task of a judge is to settle a legal dispute in a final and
publicly lawful manner in agreement with substantial partialities. Judges
exercise significant governmental power. They can order police, military, or
judicial officials to carry out searches, arrests, imprisonments,
garnishments, detentions, seizures, deportations, and similar actions.
However, judges also supervise trial procedures to ensure consistency and
impartiality and to prevent arbitrariness. A judge’s powers are checked by
higher courts, such as courts of appeal and supreme courts.
The court usually has three main legally trained court officials: the judge,
the prosecutor and the defence attorney. The role of a judge can vary between
legal systems. In an adversarial system (common law), as in effect in the
U.S. and England, the judge functions as an impartial referee, mainly
ensuring correct procedure, while the prosecution and the defense present
their case to a jury, often selected from common citizens. The main
factfinder is the jury, and the judge will then finalize sentencing.
Nevertheless, in smaller cases judges can issue summary judgments without
proceeding to a jury trial. In an inquisitorial system (civil law), as in
effect in continental Europe, there is no jury and the main factfinder is the
judge, who will do the presiding, judging and sentencing on their own. As
such, the judge is expected to apply the law directly, as in the French
expression _Le juge est la bouche de la loi_ ("The judge is the mouth of the
law"). Furthermore, in some systems even investigations may be conducted by
the judge, functioning as an examining magistrate.
Judges may work alone in smaller cases, but in criminal, family and other
significant cases, they work in a panel. In some civil law systems, this
panel may include lay judges. Unlike professional judges, lay judges are not
legally trained, but unlike jurors, lay judges are usually volunteers and may
be politically appointed. Judges are often assisted by law clerks,
referendaries and notaries in legal cases and by bailiffs or similar with
security.
*** Requirements and appointment
There are both volunteer and professional judges. A volunteer judge, such as
an English magistrate, is unpaid. Whereas, a professional judge is required
to be legally educated; in the U.S., this generally requires a degree of Juris
Doctor. Furthermore, significant professional experience is often required;
for example, in the U.S., judges are often appointed from experienced
attorneys. Judges are often appointed by the head of state. However in some
jurisdictions, judges are elected in a political election.[1]
Impartiality is often considered important for rule of law. Thus, in many
jurisdictions judges may be appointed for life, so that they cannot be removed
by the executive. However, in non-democratic systems, the appointment of
judges may be highly politicized and they often receive instructions on how to
judge, and may be removed if their conduct does not please the political
leadership.
*** Judge as an occupation
Judges must be able to research and process extensive lengths of documents,
witness testimonies, and other case material, understand complex cases and
possess a thorough understanding of the law and legal procedure, which
requires excellent skills in logical reasoning, analysis and decision-making.
Excellent writing skills are also a necessity, given the finality and
authority of the documents written. Judges work with people all the time; by
the nature of the job, good dispute resolution and interpersonal skills are a
necessity.<ref name="thebalance" /> Judges are required to have good moral
character, i.e. there must be no history of crime. Professional judges often
enjoy a high salary, in the U.S. the median salary of judges is $101,690 per
annum,[2] and federal judges earn $208,000–$267,000 per annum.[3]
*** Gender effects
In many civil law countries in Europe the majority of judges are women: in 6
countries (Slovenia, Serbia, Latvia, Luxembourg, Greece and Hungary) women
make more that 70% of judges of the first instance. In contrast, in common
law countries (UK, Ireland, Malta and the United States) the situation is
reverse: over 70% of judges of the first instance are men.[4]
On the other hand, women are underrepresented in the supreme courts of the
United States and European Union member-states, except for in Romania, where
over 80% of the judges of the High Court of Cassation and Justice are
women.<ref name="Bench 2020"/>
*** Age and retirement
In the United States, federal judges are appointed "for good behavior", which
means in practice, that federal judges work until they die, voluntarily retire
or are impeached.[5] The death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg in the office in 2020
and suspension of Pauline Newman in 2023 reinvigorated the discussion about
mandatory retirement age for federal judges, but such change would require a
constitutional amendment and is unlikely to be implemented soon.[6]
States have more flexibility in establishing a mandatory retirement age for
judges, as was confirmed by the SCOTUS in its 1991 decision Gregory v.
Ashcroft. As of 2015, 33 States and the District of Columbia had mandatory
retirement ages for State court judges, which ranged from 70 to 75 for most
(but is as high as 90 in Vermont).[7][8]
A 2020 study by the National Bureau of Economic Research found significant
positive effects on the performance of state Supreme Courts with mandatory
retirement age for judges. The authors advocated the adoption of mandatory
retirement ages for all federal and state judges, although they felt, that the
individual authorities should decide on the specific age for themselves.[9]
** Symbols of office
[Court dress] A variety of traditions have become associated with the rank or
occupation. Gavels (a ceremonial hammer) are used by judges in many
countries, to the point that the gavel has become a symbol of a judge. In
many parts of the world, judges wear long robes (often in black or red) and
sit on an elevated platform during trials (known as the bench).
American judges frequently wear black robes. American judges have ceremonial
gavels, although American judges have court deputies or bailiffs and _contempt
of court_ power as their main devices to maintain decorum in the courtroom.
However, in some of the Western United States, like California, judges did not
always wear robes and instead wore everyday clothing. Today, some members of
state supreme courts, such as the Maryland Supreme Court wear distinct dress.
In Italy and Portugal, both judges and lawyers wear particular black robes.
In some countries, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations, judges wear
wigs. The long wig often associated with judges is now reserved for
ceremonial occasions, although it was part of the standard attire in previous
centuries. A short wig resembling but not identical to a barrister's wig (a
Bench Wig) would be worn in court. This tradition, however, is being phased
out in Britain in non-criminal courts.[10]
In Oman, the judge wears a long stripe (red, green white), while the attorneys
wear the black gown.
In Portugal and in the former Portuguese Empire, the judges used to carry a
staff that was red for ordinary judges and white for the judges from the
outside.
** Titles and forms of address
[date=September 2021]
*** Asia
**** Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, court proceedings are conducted in either English or Hong Kong
Cantonese (a dialect of Yue Chinese). Judges of Hong Kong retain many of the
English traditions such as wearing wigs and robes in trials.
In the lower courts, magistrates are addressed as _Your worship_, and district
court judges as _Your Honour_.
In the superior courts of record, namely the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal
and the High Court of Hong Kong (which consists of the Court of Appeal and the
Court of First Instance), judges are addressed as _My Lord_ or _My Lady_ and
referred to as _Your Lordship_ or _Your Ladyship_, following the English
tradition.
In writing, the post-nominal letters _PJ_ is used to refer to a permanent
judge of the Court of Final Appeal and _NPJ_ to a non-permanent judge. In the
High Court, the abbreviation _JA_ is used to denote a justice of appeal, and
the letter _J_ refers to a judge of the Court of First Instance.
Masters of the High Court are addressed as _Master_.
When trials are conducted in Chinese, judges were addressed, in Cantonese, as
_Fat Goon Dai Yan_ ([yue]) before the transfer of sovereignty from the United
Kingdom to China, and as _Fat Goon Gok Ha_ ([yue]) since 1997. _Fat Goon_
([yue]) means the word "judge".
**** India
In India, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts were addressed as
_Your Lordship_ or _My Lord_ and _Your Ladyship_ or _My Lady_, a tradition
directly attributable to England. The Bar Council of India had adopted a
resolution in April 2006 and added a new Rule 49(1)(j) in the Advocates Act.
As per the rule, lawyers can address the court as _Your Honour_ and refer to
it as _Honourable Court_. If it is a subordinate court, lawyers can use terms
such as _sir_ or any equivalent phrase in the regional language concerned.
Explaining the rationale behind the move, the Bar Council had held that the
words such as _My Lord_ and _Your Lordship_ were "relics of the colonial
past". The resolution has since been circulated to all state councils and the
Supreme Court for adoption but over five years now, the resolution largely
remained on paper.
However, in an unprecedented move in October 2009, one of the judges of Madras
HC, Justice K Chandru had banned lawyers from addressing his court as _My
Lord_ and _Your Lordship_.
**** Israel
[Hebrew Bible judges] In Israel, the judges ([he]) of all courts are addressed
as _Sir_, _Madam_ ([he]) or _Your Honor_ ([he]). Typically after every naming
you will hear _haShofét_, meaning "the judge" after the respective address.
For example, _Your Honor the Judge_ would be [he] (_kevod haShofét_).
**** Kazakh Khanate
Biy - elected judges using adat Zheti Zhargy. The [Council of biys] was the
highest council, a kind of senate.
**** Malaysia
In Malaysia, judges of the subordinate courts are addressed as _Tuan_ or
_Puan_ ("Sir", "Madam"), or _Your Honour_. Judges of the superior courts are
addressed as _Yang Arif_ ([Learned One]) or _My Lord_, _My Lady_, etc.; and
_Your Lordship_ or _My Ladyship_ if the proceedings, as they generally are in
the superior courts, are in English.
**** Pakistan
In Pakistan, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts are addressed as
_Your Lordship_ or _My Lord_ or _Lordship_ and _Your Ladyship_ or _My Lady_, a
tradition directly attributable to England. There is some resistance to this
on religious grounds but more or less continues till this day. In lower
courts, judges are addressed as _sir_, _madam_ or the Urdu equivalent _Janab_
or _Judge Sahab_.
**** Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, judges of most courts are addressed as _Your Honour_; however,
the Chief Justice is addressed as _Your Lordship_. Judges of the Supreme
Court and the Appeal Court receives the title _The Honourable_.[date=November
2009]
**** Vietnam
Judges in Vietnam are addressed as _[vi]_ (literally the "Honorable Court").
*** Europe
**** Bulgaria
In Bulgaria before 1989 during the communist regime, judges were addressed as
_drugarju_ ([bg]).[11] After 1989, _gospodín sŭdiya_ ([bg]) or _gospožo
sŭdiya_ ([bg]).
**** Finland
There is no special form of address; ordinary politeness is sufficient and the
procedure lacks arcane rituals. Accordingly, the chairman of the panel is
addressed as _herra/rouva puheenjohtaja_ ("Mr./Ms. Chairman"). Finnish
judges use gavels, but there are no robes or cloaks used in any Finnish
courts.[12]
In a district court (_käräjäoikeus_), ordinary judges work with the title
_käräjätuomari_ and the chairman is _laamanni_ (lawspeaker). They are
assisted by notaries (_notaari_), assessors (_asessori_) and referendaries
(_viskaali_) who may sometimes even chair sessions. In appeals courts
(_hovioikeus_) an ordinary judge has the title _hovioikeudenneuvos_, the
chairman of a section is _hovioikeudenlaamanni_ and the court is led by a
_presidentti_. In the Supreme Court, judges are titled _oikeusneuvos_ and the
court is led by a _presidentti_.
**** France
In France, the presiding judge of a court is addressed as _Monsieur le
président_ or _Madame le président_, whilst associated judges are addressed as
_Monsieur l'Assesseur_ or _Madame l'Assesseur_. Out of the courtroom, judges
are referred to as _Monsieur le juge_ or _Madame le juge_.
**** Germany
In Germany, judges are addressed as _Herr Vorsitzender_ or _Frau Vorsitzende_,
which translate as "Mister Chairman" and "Madam Chairwoman", or as _Hohes
Gericht_, which translates as "High Court".
**** Hungary
The male presiding judge of a court is addressed as _tisztelt bíró úr_, which
means "Honourable Mister Judge" and a female presiding judge is addressed as
_tisztelt bírónő_, which means "Honourable Madam Judge". The court as a body
can be addressed as _tisztelt bíróság_, which means "Honourable Court".
**** Ireland
Judges of the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, or High Court are officially
titled _The Honourable Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Surname_ ([ga]), and informally
referred to for short as _Mr/Mrs/Ms/Miss Justice Surname_. In court, they are
addressed either by their respective titles or styles, as _The Court_ (_An
Chúirt_), or simply _Judge_ (_A Bhreithimh_).[13] In law reports, the Chief
Justice of Ireland has the postnominal _CJ_, the Presidents of the other
Courts have the postnominal _P_, and all other judges _J_, e.g. _Smith J_.
Judges of the Circuit Court are titled _His/Her Honour Judge Surname_ and are
addressed in Court as _Judge_. Before 2006, they were addressed as _My Lord_
(_A thiarna_) .
Judges of the District Court are titled _Judge Surname_ and addressed in Court
as _Judge_. Before 1991 these judges were known as District Justices and
addressed as _Your Worship_ (_d'Onóra_).
**** Italy
<!-- Deleted image removed: --> In Italy, the presiding judge of a court is
addressed as _Signor/Signora presidente della corte_ (Sir/Madame president of
the court) or _Vostro Onore_ (Your Honour).
**** Netherlands
In the Netherlands, presiding judges of either sex are, in writing only,
addressed _edelachtbare_ ("Your Honour") for judges in the Court of First
Instance, _edelgrootachtbare_ ("Your Great Honour") for justices in the Court
of Appeal and _edelhoogachtbare_ ("Your High Honour") for justices in the High
Council of the Netherlands (Supreme Court).
**** Poland
In Poland, presiding judges of either sex during trial are addressed _Wysoki
Sądzie_ ("High Court").
**** Portugal
In Portugal, presiding judges during trial are addressed as _Meretíssimo Juiz_
when a man or _Meretíssima Juíza_ when a woman (meaning "Most Worthy Judge")
or as _Vossa Excelência_ ("Your Excellency") when not specifying gender.
**** Romania
In Romania, judges during trial are addressed as _Onorata Instanta_ (Your
Honor).[14]
**** Russia
In Russia, _Vasha Chest_ ([ru]) is used for criminal cases only with the one
judge presiding.[15] For civil, commercial and criminal cases presided over by
a panel of judges the right address is _Honorable Court_.<ref name="Criminal
Procedure Code of Russia. 257" />[16][17]
**** Spain
In Spain, magistrates of the Supreme Court, magistrates and judges are
addressed to as "Your Lordship" (_Su Señoría_); however, in formal occasions,
magistrates of the Supreme Court are addressed to as "Your Most Excellent
Lordship" (_Vuestra Señoría Excelentísima_ or _Excelentísimo
Señor_/_Excelentísima Señora_); in those solemn occasions, magistrates of
lower Courts are addressed as "Your Most Illustrious Lordship" (_Vuestra
Señoría Ilustrísima_ or _Ilustrísimo Señor_/_Ilustrísima Señora_); simple
judges are always called "Your Lordship".
**** Sweden
In Sweden, the presiding judge of a court is traditionally addressed as _Herr
Ordförande_ or _Fru Ordförande_, which translate as "Mister Chairman" and
"Madam Chairwoman".
**** United Kingdom
[Forms of address in the United Kingdom#Judiciary]
***** England and Wales
In the Courts of England and Wales, Supreme Court judges are called Justices
of the Supreme Court. Justices of the Supreme Court who do not hold life
peerages are now given the courtesy style "Lord" or "Lady".[18] Justices of
the Supreme Court are addressed as "My Lord/Lady" in court. In the law
reports, the Justices of the Supreme Court are usually referred to as
"Lord/Lady N", although the Weekly Law Reports appends the post-nominal
letters "JSC" (e.g. "Lady Smith JSC"). The President and Deputy President of
the Court are afforded the post-nominal letters PSC and DPSC respectively.
Only experienced barristers or solicitors are usually appointed as judges.
Judges of the High Court and Court of Appeal are addressed (when sitting in
those courts) as "My Lord" or "My Lady" and referred to as "Your Lordship" or
"Your Ladyship".
Judges of the Court of Appeal, also called Lords Justice of Appeal, are
referred to as "Lord Justice N" or "Lady Justice N". In legal writing, Lords
Justices of Appeal are afforded the post nominal letters "LJ": for example,
Smith LJ.
When a Justice of the High Court who is not present is being referred to they
are described as "Mr./Mrs./Ms. Justice _N._" In legal writing, the
post-nominal letter "J" is used to denote a Justice (male or female) of the
High Court; for example, a Justice Smith is referred to as Smith J.[19] Unlike
American English, no comma is used to offset the letter J from the Justice's
name.<ref name="Garner_Page_489" /> The full stop after the preceding examples
terminates the sentence, not the abbreviation, and the abbreviation can be
used mid-sentence in prose in formal legal writing.<ref name="Garner_Page_489"
/> Masters of the High Court are addressed as "Master". Insolvency and
Companies Court judges in the High Court are addressed as "Judge".
Circuit judges and recorders are addressed as "Your Honour". Circuit judges
are referred to as "His/Her Honour Judge N". In writing, this title is
occasionally abbreviated as "HHJ" or "HH Judge N", but not in legal writing.
District judges and tribunal judges are addressed as "Sir/Madam".
Magistrates are usually still addressed as "Your Worship" in much of England.
Magistrates are also addressed as "Sir/Madam".
***** Scotland
In the Courts of Scotland judges in the Court of Session, High Court of
Justiciary and the sheriff courts are all addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady"
and referred to as "Your Lordship" or "Your Ladyship".
Justices of the peace in justice of the peace courts are addressed and
referred to as "Your Honour".
***** Northern Ireland
The judicial system of Northern Ireland is very similar to that of England and
Wales, and superior court judges are addressed the same way as those in
England and Wales. However, there are a few differences at the lower levels.
In Northern Ireland, the equivalent to a circuit judge is a county court
judge, and they are addressed and titled the same way as a circuit judge is in
England and Wales. The senior county court judges assigned to the county
court divisions of Belfast and Derry have the titles of Recorder of Belfast
and Recorder of Londonderry (or Derry) respectively, but are addressed the
same as other county court judges. A district judge sitting in the County
Court is addressed as "Your Honour".
A district judge (magistrates' court) is addressed as "Your Worship". A lay
magistrate, in cases where they are present, is also addressed as "Your
Worship", and may use the post-nominals "LM", e.g. "John Smith LM".[20]
*** North America
**** Canada
In general, Canadian judges may be addressed directly, depending on the
province, as "My Lord", "My Lady", "Your Honour" or "Justice" and are formally
referred to in the third person as "The Honourable Mr. (or Madam) Justice
'Forename Surname['"]. Less formally, judges of a Superior Court are referred
to as "Justice 'Surname['"], not as "Judge 'Surname.['"] When referred to in a
decision of a court, judges' titles are often abbreviated to the suffix "J.",
so that Justice Smith will be referred to as Smith J. Judges in some superior
courts are addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady".[21] In Ontario, judges are
rarely referred to as "My Lord" or "My Lady", but only as "Your Honour" at the
Ontario Superior Court of Justice.[22] Formerly, translations of these titles
such as _Votre Honneur_ ("your honour") or _Votre Seigneurie_ ("your
lordship") were used in French; today, only _Monsieur le juge_ and _Madame la
juge_ are officially used. Both the titles "judge" and "justice" are
translated _juge_.
Generally, it is only appropriate to use the term "judge" when speaking of an
anonymous or general position, such as "the trial judge", or when referring to
a member of an inferior or provincial court such as the Ontario Court of
Justice. The exception is Citizenship Judges who are referred to only as
"Judge 'Surname['"] in accordance with their appointment as independent
decision makers of the Citizenship Commission.
Like other members of the Commonwealth, a justice of the peace is addressed as
"Your Worship", and a Master of a Superior Court is referred to as "Master".
As of December 7, 2018, Ontario Court Masters are addressed in English as
"Your Honour" and in French as "Votre Honneur" and no longer as "Master".
**** United States
[date=March 2017] In many states throughout the United States, a judge is
addressed as "Your Honor" or "Judge" when presiding over the court. "Judge"
may be more commonly used by attorneys and staff, while either may be commonly
used by the plaintiff or defendant. Notably, the Superior Court of Los
Angeles County, the largest unified trial court in the United States, has a
rule that the judge shall be addressed only as "Your Honor" while in court,
and never as "Judge", "Judge (name)", "ma'am", or "sir".[23] This is somewhat
unusual as "Judge" and "Judge (name)" or similar forms of address are
considered appropriate and respectful in many other courts.
The judges of the Supreme Court of the United States, and the judges of the
supreme courts of several U.S. states and other countries are called
"justices". Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States and Justices
of other courts are addressed as "Justice (name)". The Chief Justice of the
United States is formally addressed as "Mr. or Madam Chief Justice" but also
may be identified and addressed as "Chief Justice (name)".
Regardless of the specific term employed (judge or justice), the formal title
is reduced to the postnominal abbreviation "J." in case citations and certain
case law reporters when it is necessary to identify the author of a cited
opinion.<ref name="Garner_Page_489" /> In American English, the postnominal
"J." is always divided from the judge's name by a comma and a space, so that a
citation to a dissenting opinion by Associate Justice Antonin Scalia would
warn that the cited opinion is not the majority opinion with the parenthetical
notation "Scalia, J., dissenting".<ref name="Garner_Page_489" /> The plural
form is JJ.<ref name="Garner_Page_489" /> Unlike British English, this
abbreviation style is used only in case citations, and is not used
mid-sentence in regular prose (as distinguished from case citations dropped
into sentences as parentheticals).<ref name="Garner_Page_489" /> Thus, a prose
sentence discussing the actual contents of a dissenting opinion right before a
case citation to that opinion would refer to the reasoning of "Justice
Scalia", not "Scalia, J."<ref name="Garner_Page_489" />
The justices of the supreme courts usually hold higher offices than any other
judges in a jurisdiction, including a justice of the peace, a judge who holds
police court in some jurisdictions and who may also try small claims and
misdemeanors. However, the State of New York inverts this usual order. The
initial trial court in this state is called the Supreme Court of New York, and
its judges are called "justices". The next highest appellate court is the
Supreme Court, Appellate Division, whose judges are also called "justices".
However, the highest court in New York is called the New York Court of
Appeals, whose members are called "judges".
Judges in certain jurisdictions, such as New York and New Jersey, who deal
with guardianships, trusts and estates are known as "surrogates".
A _senior judge_, in American practice, is a retired judge who handles
selected cases for a governmental entity while in retirement, on a part-time
basis.
Subordinate or inferior jurisdiction judges in American legal practice are
sometimes called magistrates, although in the federal judiciary of the United
States, they are called magistrate judges. Subordinate judges in American
legal practice who are appointed on an _ad hoc_ case-by-case basis,
particularly in cases where a great deal of detailed and tedious evidence must
be reviewed, are often called "masters" or "special masters".
Judges of courts of specialized jurisdiction (such as bankruptcy courts or
juvenile courts) were sometimes known officially as "referees", but the use of
this title is in decline. Judges sitting in courts of equity in common law
systems (such as judges in the equity courts of Delaware) are called
"chancellors".
Individuals with judicial responsibilities who report to an executive branch
official, rather than being a part of the judiciary, are often called
"administrative law judges" (ALJs) in American practice. Historically, such
officials were previously known as hearing examiners or referees before
American English settled on the ALJ title. They commonly make initial
determinations regarding matters such as workers' compensation, eligibility
for government benefits, regulatory matters, and immigration determinations.
Judges who derive their authority from a contractual agreement of the parties
to a dispute, rather than a governmental body, are called arbitrators. They
typically do not receive the honorific forms of address nor do they bear the
symbolic trappings of a publicly appointed judge. However, it is now common
for many retired judges to serve as arbitrators, and they will often write
their names as if they were still judges, with the parenthetical "(Ret.)" for
"Retired".
Unlike many civil law countries which have some courts on which panels of
judges with nearly equal status composed of both legally trained professional
judges and lay judges who lack legal training and are not career judges, the
United States legal system (like most Anglo-American legal systems) makes a
clear distinction between professional judges and laypeople involved in
deciding a case who are jurors who are part of a jury. Most but not all
American judges have professional credentials as lawyers. Non-lawyer judges
in the United States are often elected and are typically either justices of
the peace or part-time judges in rural limited jurisdiction courts. A
non-lawyer judge typically has the same rights and responsibilities as a
lawyer who is a judge holding the same office and is addressed in the same
manner.
*** Oceania
**** Australia
In Australia judges and, since 2007, magistrates, of all jurisdictions
including the High Court of Australia are now addressed as "Your Honour". In
legal contexts, they are referred to as "His/Her Honour" and "the Honourable
Justice Surname" (for judges of superior courts) or "his/her Honour Judge
Surname" (for inferior courts). Outside legal contexts, the formal terms of
address are "Judge" (for puisne justices) or "Chief Justice" (for chief
justices).
The title for most puisne judges is "Justice", which is abbreviated in law
reports to a postnominal "J", in the form "Surname J". Chief Justices of the
High Court and of state Supreme Courts are titled "Chief Justice", which is
abbreviated in law reports to a postnomial "CJ". Judges in State Supreme
Courts with a separate Court of Appeal division (New South Wales, Victoria,
Queensland and Western Australia) are referred to as Justices/Judges of the
Appeal (abbreviated "Surname JA"), while the President of the Court of Appeal
is referred to as "President" (abbreviated "Surname P").[24]
**** New Zealand
In New Zealand, judges of the District Court of New Zealand generally referred
to as "His/Her Honour" or "Sir/Madame". Judges from the High Court, Appeals
Court, and Supreme Court are referred to as "Justice [Surname]". In social
settings, it is appropriate to use "Judge" in all cases.[25]
*** South America
**** Brazil
In Brazil, judges are simply called "Juiz" or "Juíza" (male and female forms
of "judge") and traditionally addressed to as "Vossa Excelência" ([Your
Excellency], translated as 'Your Honor') or "Meritíssimo" ('Honorable', but it
is used as a pronoun also translated as 'Your Honor'). Judges that are part
of a panel in a State Court, or Federal Court are called "desembargadores".
Judges sitting in the higher courts (Supremo Tribunal Federal, Superior
Tribunal de Justiça, Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, Superior Tribunal Militar
and Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) are called "ministro" or "ministra" (male and
female forms of "minister") and also referred to as "Vossa Excelência".
*** International courts
At the International Court of Justice, judges may be addressed by the titles
they received in their countries of origin.[26][27]
Judges of the International Criminal Court are referred to as
"judge".[date=February 2017]
** See also
[colwidth=20em]
- Adjudicator
- AI judge
- Barrister
- Biy
- Court dress
- Election judge
- Hebrew Bible judges
- Judicial activism
- Judicial deference
- Judicial immunity
- Judicial independence
- Judicial misconduct
- Judiciary
- Lawyer
- Lay judge
- Legal ethics
- List of jurists
- Magistrate
- Prosecutor
- Public defender
- Solicitor
[div col end]
** References
[30em]
** External links
[Judges] [judge] [Judges]
- State of California Commission of Judicial Performance (see http://cjp.ca.gov/)
- CEPEJ (see http://www.coe.int/cepej) European commission for the efficiency of justice.
- CCJE (see http://www.coe.int/ccje/) European consultative council of judges.
- How sentencing works: You be the Judge (see https://web.archive.org/web/20111211194309/http://ybtj.cjsonline.gov.uk/)
- Directgov (see http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/CrimeJusticeAndTheLaw/Goingtocourt/DG_196045) Crown Court – what it does (Directgov, England and Wales)
[Authority control]
Category:Legal professions Category:Law enforcement Category:Positions of
authority