From en.wikipedia.org:
[Modern calendar era] [BCE] [date=November 2024 ]
COMMON ERA ( CE) and BEFORE THE COMMON ERA ( BCE) <!-- This article is about
"Common Era". It is not about the abbreviation "CE". Please do not add any
other association with that abbreviation as it will be deleted. --> are year
notations for the Gregorian or Julian calendar, and are exactly equivalent to
the better-known Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations.
"[CURRENTYEAR] CE" and "AD [CURRENTYEAR]" each describe the current year; "400
BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year.[1][2] BCE/CE are primarily used to avoid
religious connotations[3] by not referring to Jesus as "Our
Lord".[4][5][name="nostri"] Nevertheless, its epoch remains the same as Anno
Domini.
The expression can be traced back to 1615, when it first appears in a book by
Johannes Kepler as the [la] ([la]),[6]<ref name=VulgarisAerae1 /> and to 1635
in English as "Vulgar Era".[From the Latin word [la] , the common people [snd]
to contrast it with the regnal year system of dating used by the government.]
The term "Common Era" can be found in English as early as 1708,<ref
name=1708CommonInEnglish /> and became more widely used in the mid-19th
century by Jewish religious scholars. <!--NOTE TO CONTRIBUTORS: This article
is about "Common Era" and "Before Common Era". It is NOT about the
abbreviations CE and BCE, which have a separate article. Please do not add
any alternative meanings of CE or BCE to this article. -->
** History
*** Origins
[Anno Domini] Around the year 525, the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus
devised the principle of taking the moment that he believed to be the date of
the incarnation of Jesus to be the point from which years are numbered (the
epoch) of the Christian ecclesiastical calendar.<ref name=Pedersen />[7][8]
Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era
as "[la]" (the years of our Lord Jesus Christ).<ref name=Pedersen />[52] He
did this to replace the Era of the Martyrs system (then used for some Easter
tables) because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who
persecuted Christians.<ref name=Pedersen />[50]
This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe, with its use by
Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years
before 1 backwards, without a year zero.[As noted in History of zero , the use
of zero in Western civilization was uncommon before the twelfth century. Two
other systems that also do not use religious titles, the astronomical system
and the ISO 8601 standard, do use zero. The year 1 BCE (or BC) is represented
as 0 in the astronomical system, and as 0000 in ISO 8601.]
*** Vulgar Era
[vulgar] [[File:JKepler.jpg|thumb|Johannes Kepler (1571[ndash]1630), the
German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer
on music[9]]] The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its
appearance as "Vulgar Era" to distinguish years of the Anno Domini era, which
was in popular use, from dates of the regnal year (the year of the reign of a
sovereign) typically used in national law.[10] (The word 'vulgar' originally
meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations.<ref name="OED
vulgar"/>)
The first use of the Latin term [la][name=VulgarisAerae0] may be in a 1615
book by Johannes Kepler.<ref name=VulgarisAerae1 /> Kepler uses it again, as
[la], in a 1616 table of ephemerides,[11] and again, as [la], in 1617.[12] An
English edition of that book from 1635 may contain the earliest known use of
"Vulgar Era" in its title page.[13][As England did not adopt the Gregorian
calendar until 1752 , "vulgar" dates were determined according to the Julian
calendar .] A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes the phrase "Before
Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,[nbsp]6".[14]
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term
"vulgar era" (which it defines as "Christian era").[15]{{efn|The probable
source is a 1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux which refers to,
"...the vulgar Æra of Christ's incarnation and not from the true time of
it."[16] This citation is given in the 1933 edition of Oxford English
Dictionary but without any assertion of first use.[17]}}
The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase [la] on the
title page of a 1584 theology book, [la].[18] In 1649, the Latin phrase [la]
appeared in the title of an English almanac.[19] A 1652 ephemeris may be the
first instance of the English use of "Christian Era".[20]
The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708,<ref
name=1708CommonInEnglish>[title=The History of the Works of the Learned ]
(Possibly the first use of _common era_ in English (1708)) and in a 1715 book
on astronomy, it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar
Era".[21] A 1759 history book uses _common æra_ in a generic sense to refer to
"the common era of the Jews".[22] The phrase "before the common era" may have
first appeared in a 1770 work that also uses _common era_ and _vulgar era_ as
synonyms in a translation of a book originally written in German. [23] The
1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms _vulgar era_ and
_common era_ synonymously.[24][25] In 1835, in his book _Living Oracles_,
Alexander Campbell wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of
Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days".[26] He refers to the
_common era_ as a synonym for _vulgar era_: "the fact that our Lord was born
on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for
example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common
era".[27] The _Catholic Encyclopedia_ (1909), in at least one article, reports
all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by
the early 20th century.[28]
The phrase "common era", in lower case, also appeared in the 19th century in a
"generic" sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any
system of dates in everyday use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common
era of the Jews",[29][30] "the common era of the Mahometans",[31] "common era
of the world",[32] or "the common era of the foundation of Rome".[33] When it
did refer to the Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified (e.g., "common era
of the Incarnation",[34] "common era of the Nativity",[35] or "common era of
the birth of Christ").[36]
An adapted translation of _Common Era_ into Latin as [la]{{efn|_era_[snd] or,
with a macron, [la][snd] being an alternative form of [la]; [la] is the usual
form[37]}} was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister
Crowley, and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a
replacement for AD.[38]
*** History of the use of the CE/BCE abbreviation
Although Jews have the Hebrew calendar, they often use the Gregorian calendar
without the AD prefix, as Judaism does not recognize Jesus as the Messiah.[39]
As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews
to denote years in the Western calendar.[40] [2005], Common Era notation has
also been in use for Hebrew lessons for more than a century.<ref name=Gormley
/> Jews have also used the term CURRENT ERA.[41]
** Contemporary usage
Some academics in the fields of theology, education, archaeology and history
have adopted CE and BCE notation despite some disagreement.[42] A study
conducted in 2014 found that the BCE/CE notation is not growing at the expense
of BC and AD notation in the scholarly literature, and that both notations are
used in a relatively stable fashion.[43]
*** Australia
In 2011, media reports suggested that the BC/AD notation in Australian school
textbooks would be replaced by BCE/CE notation.[44] The change drew opposition
from some politicians and church leaders. Weeks after the story broke, the
Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority denied the rumours
and stated that the BC/AD notation would remain, with CE and BCE as an
optional suggested learning activity.[45]
*** Canada
In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of
History) in Gatineau (opposite Ottawa), which had previously switched to
BCE/CE, decided to change back to BC/AD in material intended for the public
while retaining BCE/CE in academic content.[46]
*** Nepal
The notation is in particularly common use in Nepal in order to disambiguate
dates from the local (Indian or Hindu) calendar, Bikram or Vikram Sambat.
Disambiguation is needed because the era of the Hindu calendar is quite close
to the Common Era.
*** United Kingdom
In 2002, an advisory panel for the religious education syllabus for England
and Wales recommended introducing BCE/CE dates to schools,[47] and by 2018
some local education authorities were using them.<ref name=Tel-NT />
In 2018, the National Trust said it would continue to use BC/AD as its house
style.<ref name=Tel-NT>"National Trust tells properties to stop dropping BC
and AD out of fear it might offend non-Christians" (see
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/11/12/national-trust-tells-properties-stick-anno-domini-historic-site/)
, _The Daily Telegraph_, by Henry Bodkin, 12 November 2018 English Heritage
explains its era policy thus: "It might seem strange to use a Christian
calendar system when referring to British prehistory, but the BC/AD labels are
widely used and understood."[48] Some parts of the BBC use BCE/CE, but some
presenters have said they will not.<ref name=Tel-NT /> As of October 2019, the
BBC News style guide has entries for AD and BC, but not for CE or BCE.[49] The
style guide for _The Guardian_ says, under the entry for CE/BCE: "some people
prefer CE (common era, current era, or Christian era) and BCE (before common
era, etc.) to AD and BC, which, however, remain our style".[50]
*** United States
In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks was reported
in 2005 to be growing.<ref name=Gormley /> Some publications have transitioned
to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first
edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending a period of 138 years in which the
traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the College
Board in its history tests,[51] and by the Norton Anthology of English
Literature. Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History
Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics
such as Jerusalem and Judaism.[52] The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal
Diocese _Maryland Church News_ says that BCE and CE should be used.[53] The
US-based Society of Biblical Literature style guide for academic texts on
religion prefers BCE/CE to BC/AD.[54]
In June 2006, in the United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed
its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving
education of students about these concepts a matter of local
discretion.[55][56][57]
** Rationales
<!-- Please do not add personal opinions or theories in favour or against this
notation, as they will be deleted. Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not an open
forum. The article may only reflect the logically argued positions of subject
experts, not just anyone with an opinion. -->
*** Support
The use of CE in Jewish scholarship was historically motivated by the desire
to avoid the implicit "Our Lord" in the abbreviation _AD_.[ name="nostri"]
Although other aspects of dating systems are based in Christian origins, AD is
a direct reference to Jesus as Lord.[58][59][60] Proponents of the Common Era
notation assert that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the
same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently
used by Christians, but who are not themselves Christian.<ref name="RelTolrnc"
/> Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has argued:[61]
{{blockquote|[T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to
Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as a matter of
convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths
and cultures – different civilizations, if you like – that some shared way of
reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common
Era.[62]}}
Adena K. Berkowitz, in her application to argue before the United States
Supreme Court, opted to use BCE and CE because, "Given the multicultural
society that we live in, the traditional Jewish designations[snd]B.C.E. and
C.E.[snd] cast a wider net of inclusion."[63] In the World History
Encyclopedia, Joshua J. Mark wrote "Non-Christian scholars, especially,
embraced [CE and BCE] because they could now communicate more easily with the
Christian community. Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist scholars could
retain their [own] calendar but refer to events using the Gregorian Calendar
as BCE and CE without compromising their own beliefs about the divinity of
Jesus of Nazareth."[64] In _History Today_, Michael Ostling wrote: "BC/AD
Dating: In the year of whose Lord? The continuing use of AD and BC is not only
factually wrong but also offensive to many who are not Christians."<ref
name="Ostling" />
*** Opposition
Critics note the fact that there is no difference in the epoch of the two
systems—chosen to be close to the date of birth of Jesus. Since the year
numbers are the same, BCE and CE dates should be equally offensive to other
religions as BC and AD.[65] Roman Catholic priest and writer on interfaith
issues Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive
option since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers and forcing
it on other nations.<ref name=Panikkar>[first=Raimon ] In 1993, the
English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated a slippery slope
scenario in his style guide that, "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC
convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as
well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering
years] itself, given its Christian basis."<ref name=Wilson />
Some Christians are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus,[66]
including the Southern Baptist Convention.<ref name="SBC" />
** Conventions in style guides
The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows the year number. Unlike
AD, which still often precedes the year number, CE always follows the year
number (if context requires that it be written at all).[67] Thus, the current
year is written as [CURRENTYEAR] in both notations (or, if further clarity is
needed, as [CURRENTYEAR] CE, or as AD [CURRENTYEAR]), and the year that
Socrates died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by
399 BC in the BC/AD notation). The abbreviations are sometimes written with
small capital letters, or with periods (e.g., "<span
style="font-size:87%;">B.C.E.</span>" or "C.E.").[68]
** Similar conventions in other languages
- In Germany , Jews in Berlin seem to have already been using words translating to "(before the) common era" in the 18th century, while others like Moses Mendelssohn opposed this usage as it would hinder the integration of Jews into German society. <ref name="Jewish Joke" /> The formulation seems to have persisted among German Jews in the 19th century in forms like [de] (before the common chronology). [69] [70] In 1938 Nazi Germany , the use of this convention was also prescribed by the National Socialist Teachers League . [71] However, it was soon discovered that many German Jews had been using the convention ever since the 18th century, and _Time_ magazine found it ironic to see " Aryan s following Jewish example nearly 200 years later". [72]
- In Spanish , common forms used for "BC" are [es] and [es] (for " [es] ", "before Christ"), with variations in punctuation and sometimes the use of [es] ( [es] ) instead of [es] . The [es] also acknowledges the use of [es] ( [es] ) and [es] ( [es] ). [73] In scholarly writing, [es] is the equivalent of the English "BCE", " [es] " or "Before the Common Era". [74]
- In Welsh , OC can be expanded to equivalents of both AD ( [cy] ) and CE ( [cy] ); for dates before the Common Era, CC (traditionally, [cy] ) is used exclusively.
- In Russian since the October Revolution (1917) [ru] , lit. _before our era_ ) and [ru] lit.. _of our era_ ) are used almost universally. Within Christian churches [ru] , i.e. _before/after the birth of Christ_ , equivalent to [la] ) remains in use.
- In Polish , "p.n.e." ( [pl] , lit. _before our era_ ) and "n.e." ( [pl] , lit. _of our era_ ) are commonly used in historical and scientific literature. [pl] ( _before Christ_ ) and [pl] ( _after Christ_ ) see sporadic usage, mostly in religious publications.
- In China , upon the foundation of the Republic of China , the Government in Nanking adopted the Republic of China calendar with 1912 designated as year 1, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was [西元] ( [zh] , "Western Era"), which is still used in Taiwan in formal documents. In 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted [zh] ( [zh] , "Common Era") for both internal and external affairs in mainland China . This notation was extended to Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in 1999 (de facto extended in 1966) through Annex III of Hong Kong Basic Law and Macau Basic Law , thus eliminating the ROC calendar in these areas. BCE is translated into Chinese as [zh] ( [zh] , "Before the Common Era").
- In Czech , the "n. l." ( [cs] which translates as _of our year count_ ) and "př. n. l." or "před n. l." ( [cs] meaning _before our year count_ ) is used, always after the year number. The direct translation of AD ( [cs] , abbreviated as _L. P._ ) or BC ( [cs] , abbreviated as _př. Kr._ ) is seen as archaic. [75]
- In Croatian the common form used for _BC_ and _AD_ are _pr. Kr._ ( _prije Krista_ , "before Christ") [76] and _p. Kr._ ( _poslije Krista_ , _after Christ_ ). [77] The abbreviations _pr. n. e._ ( _prije nove ere, before new era_ ) [78] and _n. e. (nove ere, (of the) new era_ ) [79] have also recently been introduced.
- In Danish , "f.v.t." ( [da] , _before our time reckoning_ ) and "e.v.t." ( [da] , _after our time reckoning_ ) are used as BCE/CE are in English. Also commonly used are "f.Kr." ( [da] , _before Christ_ ) and "e.Kr." ( [da] , _after Christ_ ), which are both placed after the year number in contrast with BC/AD in English.
- In Macedonian , the terms "п.н.е." (пред нашата ера "before our era") and "н.е." (наша ера "our era") are used in every aspect. [date=March 2023]
- In Estonian , "e.m.a." ( [et] , _before our time reckoning_ ) and "m.a.j." ( [et] , _according to our time reckoning_ ) are used as BCE and CE, respectively. Also in use are terms "eKr" ( [et] , _before Christ_ ) and "pKr" ( [et] , _after Christ_ ). In all cases, the abbreviation is written after the year number.
- In Finnish , "eaa." ( [fi] , _before time reckoning_ ) and "jaa." ( [fi] , _after the start of time reckoning_ ) are used as BCE and CE, respectively. Also (decreasingly) in use are terms "eKr", ( [fi] , _before Christ_ ) and "jKr". ( [fi] , _after Christ_ ). In all cases, the abbreviation is written after the year number.
** See also
[History]
- Astronomical year numbering
- Before Present
- Calendar
- Calendar reform
- Holocene Era
- List of calendars
** Explanatory notes
[2]
** References
{{reflist|1=2|refs= [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] }}
** External links
[Common_Era#Translations]
- [title= From Our Readers: Ancient Manuscripts—How Are They Dated? ]
{{external media ||video1=[7pPMUuwNTlI] // Archaeology News — 2023, July 15 }}
[Calendars] [Time Topics] [Chronology]
Category:1610s introductions Category:1615 beginnings Category:17th-century
neologisms Category:Calendar eras Category:Chronology Category:Gregorian
calendar Category:Linguistic controversies Category:Secularism and religions